# Sidechain technologies in blockchain networks: An examination and state-of-the-art review - ScienceDirect

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In terms of key or nonce leakage, note that the equation $$s = k^(h + r \mathsf )\,\,\mathrm \,\,n$$ contains two unknowns and therefore cannot be used to leak the secret key or the nonce. Recovering k from $$r = (Gk)_$$ would require solving ECDLP, similar to how $$\mathsf = G \mathsf$$ cannot be used to recover $$\mathsf$$ .

Most crypto coins use mining, or the proof-of-work protocol, as the consensus mechanism to generate the underlying distributed blockchain. While mining is a resource-exhaustive process, staking instead requires holding cryptocurrency for an extended period to earn block rewards. The alternative method increasingly employed is the proof-of-stake (PoS) protocol. Several coins consider the move from PoW to PoS to achieve more environmentally sustainable practices.

As it turns out, this was the case for 26 addresses in 119 pastes. In total, we found that an attacker could have stolen 22.40 BTC. For example, one paste contained an address holding a balance of 40.84 BTC for which a transaction was already placed in the mempool. We excluded transaction fees in this analysis as they are highly dynamic over time and the number of stealable outputs was so small that the resulting fees would not be a significant factor. For the remaining cases, Binance there was a blocking transaction in between, i.e., the paste containing the secret key was published after the blocking transaction was distributed. To get a more conservative estimation of the amount of stealable Bitcoins, we have to consider pending transactions. That is, we only considered cases where there was no transaction in between which was not marked as RBF.

A Bitcoin address is a serialized hash of $$\mathsf$$ , which is generated by hashing the public key with the SHA-256 and the RIPMED-160 hash functions and appending and prepending a version byte and checksum bytes. The hash is then serialized using base58 encoding, which is a more human-readability-friendly version of the base64 encoding and removes ambiguous-looking characters (e.g., zero ("0") and capital o ("O")). This means that if an attacker leaks a secret key, they gain control over the balances of two addresses. We omit the technical details here as they are not required for the scope of this paper. It is only important that both serialization options yield different addresses, which means that every public key $$\mathsf$$ corresponds to two addresses, which can be used independently of each other. Before hashing, $$\mathsf$$ must be serialized, for which there are two options, namely the compressed public key and the uncompressed public key. For instance, we determine that the balance of a P2PKH address encoding a hash h , is the sum of the values of all unspent outputs that can be redeemed with the public key $$\mathsf$$ that h is a hash for. We can define the balance of a P2PKH address by using the previously mentioned scripts. An example of such an address is 16UwLL9Risc3QfPqBUvKofHmBQ7wMtjvM .

As an OSINT platform we consider Pastebin [3], which is a popular information-sharing web application on the Internet, and has already proven to leak different types of privacy-related information [16]. First, we study whether users (accidentally or knowingly) explicitly leak cryptographic keys, that is, post them publicly. To this end, we leverage the notion of open-source intelligence (OSINT) with respect to cryptocurrency leaks. As a case study, we consider Bitcoin as it is the most prevalent cryptocurrency currently used, but any other cryptocurrency would be suitable as well. We envision a scenario where a victim uses Pastebin to share a piece of information including Bitcoin secrets such as a code snippet performing a transaction or the debug output of wallet software. However, other OSINT platforms such as Twitter, Reddit, Facebook or GitHub would also work. The victim creates this paste to privately share the information, not knowing that it will be publicly available in the Pastebin feed. In this paper, we take a different perspective and study whether remote attack vectors allow leaking cryptographic keys from users. An attacker that monitors this feed can then scan each new paste for Bitcoin keys, for example using their well-known format, and use those keys to steal Bitcoins. Our results show that an attacker could have stolen 22.40 BTC during this timespan. To simulate this, we have monitored the Pastebin feed since September 2017 for Bitcoin secrets.

Not meeting this very real (at the time) market demand would mean leaving a lot of money on the table. Were these users simply to stop using blockchains and wait for Ethereum to scale? Full node hardware requirements? Of course not, demand simply needed to be offloaded somewhere in the meanwhile. Should you adored this article along with you want to receive more info with regards to Binance kindly pay a visit to our web site. But this explanation is so nuanced and retail users don’t really care. Retail users in 2021 just wanted faster and cheaper transactions so they could continue gambling on speculative tokens with ease. Multi-year scaling roadmaps?